Mahabharatam

మహాభారత గ్రంధానికి వ్యాసుడు ఇచ్చిన అసలు పేరేమిటి ?
 Jaya
మహాభారతంలో ఎన్ని పర్వాలు ఉన్నాయి?  
 18
క్రింది వానిలో మహాభారతంలో కనిపించని పాత్ర ఏది ?  
 Vishwamitrudu
మహాభారతంలో ప్రసిద్దమయిన "విష్ణు సహస్రనామా" లను ఎవరు బోధించారు ?
 Bhishmudu
కోరిన దైవపురుశునినుండి పుత్రుని పొందే వరాన్ని కుంతీదేవికి ప్రసాదించిన రుషి ఎవరు? 
 Durvasa Maharshi
భీష్ముని యొక్క తండ్రి ఎవరు ?  
 Shantanudu
కుంతీ దేవి అర్జునుని ఏ దేవుని అనుగ్రహం వలన పొందినది ?
 Indrudu
గంగాదేవి భీష్మునికి పెట్టిన అసలు పేరు ఏమిటి ?
దేవవ్రతుడు
భీష్ముడు ఎవరి వద్ద విలువిద్య అభ్యసించాడు?
  Parasharamudu
వేద వ్యాసుని తల్లి ఎవరు?
 Sathyavati
    

  

Telangana Agitation

The Telangana agitation started in the first week of January 1969 in Khammam when students demanded the implementation of the Telangana safeguards enumerated in the Gentlemen's Agreement. It soon spread to different parts of Telangana. The students got divided into two groups: one demanding the implementation of safeguards and the other demanding a separate Telangana state.

Non-Gazetted Officers threatened direct action on January 11, 1969, if their demands were not met. At the outbreak of the agitation, the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh called for an All-Party Meeting and announced that there was a perfect unanimity among the leaders to 'achieve full integration of Andhra Pradesh State. 

Two issues were discussed and agreed upon:

1. The appointment of a senior civil service officer to decide the question of Telangana surpluses
2. Relieving of all domicile persons from Telangana posts and providing jobs for them in the Andhra region.

Following the All-Party Accord of January 1969, the State Government issued orders for the transfer of non-domicile public employees from Telangana. The Government order on these transfers was the Public Employment Act of 1957. The rules were challenged by Andhra employees in the Andhra Pradesh High Court. The High Court struck down the Public Employment Act and the Rules. The Government appealed to the division bench of the High Court.

A few other Andhra employees led by A.V.S. Narasimha Rao filed a separate writ petition in the Supreme Court on February 4, 1969, challenging the validity of the Government Order and also the Public Employment Act of 1957 and the Rules. The Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court gave its judgement on March 28 quashing the Government Order.

As a follow-up measure of the All-Party accord, the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh arranged for the accounting of Telangana surplus funds. Kumar Lalith, Deputy Comptroller and Auditor General, assessed the surplus funds as Rs.34.10 crores.

The Telangana agitation continued in the meantime. In the beginning it was leaderless. Madan Mohan, a lawyer, formed a forum known as the Telangana Praja Samithi (TPS) in February 1969. Chenna Reddy was sympathetic to these leaders. Violence increased. Firing was often employed to disperse violent crowds. The TPS organized conventions in many towns across Telangana and soon got strengthened. Chenna Reddy came out openly in support of a separate Telangana and K.V. Ranga Reddy gave his blessings to the movement. Law and order continued to deteriorate.

The Prime Minister Indira Gandhi discussed the problem with leaders of the Opposition in Parliament on April 9,1969. Except for the Swatantra Party all others did not support a separate state. The Prime Minister Indira Gandhi rejected the demand for the ouster of Kasu Brahmananda Reddy from the leadership of the Andhra Pradesh Congress.

The Prime Minister announced an Eight-Point Formula on April 11,1969 to ensure the development of Telangana. In consonance with this formula, the Centre appointed two committees:

1. Committee of Jurists under former Justice K.N. Wanchoo to suggest measures to provide constitutional safeguards for the Telangana people in the matter of public employment

2. Committee under Justice Bhargava to assess the revenue surpluses of Telangana.

In spite of these measures the agitation mounted and grew in intensity. Bandhs, hartals and processions were very frequent. Demand for a separate state became the central theme of the agitation.

The Prime Minister visited Hyderabad on June 4, 1969. She met leaders of different groups and political parties. Subsequently, then Union Home Minister, Y. B. Chavan, also visited Hyderabad to have discussions. Consensus reached on two things:

1. The dismissal of Brahmananda Reddy's ministry.
2. Proclamation of Presidential rule in Andhra Pradesh.

Realizing that the agitation was very strongly motivated, particularly about the dismissal of his government, Brahmananda Reddy tendered his resignation on June 27. The Congress leadership sent Congress President Nijalingappa and a senior member Kamaraj Nadar, to seek the verdict of the State Legislature Party. The Congress Legislature Party affirmed its support to Kasu Brahmananda Reddy and suggested that he should continue until normalcy was restored and a peaceful changeover should be opted, giving the leadership to someone from Telangana.

The Telangana leaders felt that agitation politics alone would not be sufficient to dethrone Brahmananda Reddy. This realization made the TPS enter into the electoral politics. It won a by-election in June 1970, defeating the Congress (R). By this time, the Congress had already split at the national level and the TPS supported the leadership of Indira Gandhi. Brahmananda Reddy also supported her.

In the December of 1970, Indira Gandhi dissolved the Lok Sabha and announced a mid-term poll. The TPS eventually contested all the 14 seats to Parliament from Telangana and won 10 out of them. In spite of her overwhelming majority in the Lok Sabha, Indira Gandhi did not give any leverage to the TPS which opted for a compromise in September 1971 and merged with the Congress (R). The deal involved:

1. Continuation of Mulki Rules;
2. Separate budget and accounts for Telangana
3. Separate Pradesh Congress Committee for Telangana
4. Resignation of Brahmananda Reddy in favor of a Chief Minister from Telangana.

The Telangana agitation did not achieve its important goal of a separate state, but secured assurance of safeguards for the region. Its achievement was quite significant. It wrested for the first time the Chief Ministership from the politically dominant Andhras. However, the new Chief Minister, P.V. Narasimha Rao (former Education Minister in the State Cabinet) was an integrationist and politically a light weight in the Reddy dominated Telangana politics. Ten portfolios in his ministry went to Telangana, three of them belonging to the erstwhile TPS.

Razakar Movement

The Nizam was very anxious to become independent and it had been Nizam's ambition to secure Dominion Status for his State. He tried to achieve this ambitious desire with the help of Khasim Razvi of the Ittehadul Muslimeen and its storm troopers, the Razakars.

The Hindus of the Hyderabad State accounted for 93 per cent of its population. They launched the "Join India" movement with the cooperation of a few patriotic Muslims for the integration of the State with the rest of the country. The State Congress leaders, led by Swami Ramanand Tirtha, whole-heartedly supported the movement. The Nizam banned the State Congress. Its leaders are forced to conduct their activities from places like Vijayawada and Bombay. The Communists on their part organized village defense squads to protect people from the attacks of the Nizam Police and Razakars.

The negotiations between the Nizam's Dominions and the Indian Union proved abortive. The Nizam Government did not agree to the accession to the Indian Union. The activities of the Majlis Ittehadul Muslimeen and the Razakars within the Dominions were posing a serious threat to peace and harmony. The growing violence by the Razakars seriously jeopardized law and order.

The Government of India tried to persuade the Nizam to sign the Instrument of accession with India. After tortuous negotiations, the Nizam finally entered into a "Stand Still Agreement" on November 29, 1947, with India for one year to maintain status quo.

This agreement provided the Nizam to gain time to procure military hardware from different parts of the world and smuggle them into Hyderabad. In the meanwhile the Nizam sent a delegation to the United Nations organization to refer the Hyderabad case to the Security Council.

With the growing violence by the Razakars and the Nizam's attempts to get himself independent, the Government of India decided to curb these tendencies by launching a `Police Action' against the Nizam. The Indian Army, led by Major-General J.N.Chaudhuri entered the State from five directions and the military action was a brilliant success. On 18th September 1948, Nizam's forces surrendered to the Indian army and Mir Laik Ali, the Prime Minister of the Nizam, and Khasim Razvi were arrested. On September 23, the Nizam withdrew his complaint in the Security Council. The merger of Hyderabad Dominions into the Indian Union was announced. Major-General J.N.Chaudhuri took over as Military Governor of Hyderabad and stayed in that position till the end of 1949. In January 1950, M.K.Vellodi, a Senior Civil Servant was made the Chief Minister of the State and the Nizam was designated "Raj Pramukh". After the 1952 General Elections, the first popular ministry headed by B.Rama Krishna Rao took charge of the State.

Freedom Struggle

he role of the Telangana in the Freedom Struggle was significant and they had always been in the forefront along with the rest of the country. The first rebellion for Independence in 1857 did not affect the state of affairs in the south, though ripples were felt in the State of Hyderabad.But British suppressed the rebellions led by Rohilla and Arab soldiers and the Gonds in the Adilabad district under the leadership of Ramji Gond in 1860. There were occasional rebellions of the peasants here and there, brought out by their dissatisfaction to the forefront. Agriculture became the mainstay of the people, as the cottage industries dwindled due to the deliberate policy of the Government to encourage British industries at the expense of the indigenous ones. The construction of dams across the Godavari and the Krishna in 1852 and 1855 respectively resulted in increasing agricultural production. The emergence of the strong, educated, and confident but dissatisfied middle class seeking equality with the white ruler was seen in the beginning of the twentieth century.

In 1920, when Mahatma Gandhi started non-co-operation movement, it had an immediate response in Telangana. Many lawyers gave up their lucrative practice and many students gave up their studies. In November 1921, the Congress gave permission to the Provincial Committee to start Civil Disobedience, if the conditions laid down by Mahatma Gandhi were fulfilled.

 The next episode was the Forest Satyagraha of the ryots. The peasants had to pay heavy tax for permission to graze their cattle in forests. When the crops failed, they decided to send their cattle into the forests. They took the cattle forcibly, confined them in cattle-pounds and refused to free them unless the fee was paid. There was a clash between the cattle owners and the armed police. Gandhiji called off the Non Co-operation Movement due to some untoward incidents.

 In 1930, Mahatma Gandhi started his salt-campaign. Telangana region became the venue of memorable deeds of many a young man and woman. The thirties saw the emergence of leftist organizations, which gave a fillip to the progressive trends. The arrest of the leaders in 1942 provoked the masses. The message of the National Congress inspired the people, and they brought the functioning of the Government to a stand still for a few days. Many young students and workers faced the bullets cheerfully.

Asaf Jahis

Mir Kamaruddin founded ASAF JAHIS dynasty. He was one of the Ministers of the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah and the latter conferred on him the title of Asaf Jah. He negotiated a peace treaty with Nadirshah, the Iranian invader. Mir Kamaruddin got disgusted with the intrigues that prevailed in Delhi. He assumed the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk, conducted himself as an independent prince of Deccan, where he was a Subedar earlier. The Asaf Jahis rule over Golconda started with Auranganbad as its Capital. 

The Nizams of Asafjahi dynasty who ruled the Deccan:

• Mir Kamaruddin (Nizam-ul-Mulk - Asaf Jah I) (AD 1724-1748)
• Nasir Jung (AD 1748-1751)
• Muzaffar Jung (AD 1750-1751)
• Salabat Jung (AD 1751-1761)
• Nizam Ali Khan - Asaf Jah II (AD 1762-1803)
• Nizam III Sikandar Jah (AD 1803-1829)
• Nizam IV -- Nasir-ud-Daula (AD 1829-1857)
• Nizam V -- Afzal-ud-Daula (AD 1857-1869)
• Nizam VI -- Mir Mahaboob Ali Khan (AD.1869-1911)
• Nizam VII -- Mir Osman Ali Khan (AD.1911-1948 September).

The Hyderabad was founded in AD 1590 and built by Muhammad Quli, the fifth king of the Qutbshahi dynasty. The rule of the Nizams lasted not only from AD 1724 to 1948 but also concerned a large territory with diverse language groups. The State of Hyderabad extended from Narmada to Trichinapally and from Machilipatnam to Bijapur under Asaf Jah I. During the period of Afzal-ud-Daula (AD 1857-1869), it was estimated to be 95,337 sq.miles, which was more than 450 miles each way. After Nizam I, Asaf Jah, died in AD 1748, there was tussle for power among his son, Nasar Jung, and his grandson Muzaffar Jung. The British supported Nasar Jung whereas Muzaffar Jung got support from the French. These two heirs were subsequently killed by Nawabs of Kurnool and Cuddapah in AD 1750 and AD 1751 respectively. The third son of Nizam I, Salabat Jung became the ruler as Nizam. 

Hostilities remained in India between the French and the English in AD 1758 on the outbreak of seven-year war in Europe in AD 1756. As a result, the French lost their power in India and consequently the French also lost their influence at Hyderabad. Nizam Ali Khan (Nizam II) dislodged Salabat Jung and proclaimed himself as Nizam in AD 1762. The Nizam II moved the capital of the Deccan from Aurangabad to Hyderabad in 1763. Nizam's sovereignty had declined considerably in the later part of 18 th century and he was compelled to sign six treaties with British. 

The British agreed to furnish Nizam Ali Khan with a force when required and pay Rs. 9 lakhs when troops are not required, in return for the Northern Circars in AD 1766. He signed another treaty conferring the Northern Circars to the British and the payment by the British was reduced to Rs.7 lakhs in AD 1768. He also signed another treaty, in which he surrendered the Guntur circar in AD 1788. The Nizam had conspired with Hyder Ali of Mysore and the Peshwa of the Marathas to drive away the British. The British learned about his designs and they marched against the Nizam, who had to sue for peace agreeing to the presence of British army, artillery and cavalry at Hyderabad. The Nizam was compelled to disassociate himself from Hyder Ali through another treaty. He signed another treaty with the British altering the earlier treaties to increase the strength of the English army in Hyderabad in AD 1800. The Nizam had to cede to the company an area comprising the districts of Rayalaseema and Bellary, in lieu of the cost of maintenance of the force. The Nizam lost not only the territory but also reputation and power.

The Telugu land was divided into major divisions: one that came to be popularly called Telangana under the feudal rule of the Nizam, accounting approximately one-third of the entire land and the other, broadly designated as Andhra, in British India. The English cantonment, raised on the other side of Hussain Sagar, was named after Nizam III - Sikandar Jah (AD 1803-1829) as Secunderabad. The Afzal Gunj Bridge or the Nayapul, over the river Musi was constructed and established a General Hospital under the rule (AD 1857-1869) of Nizam V, Afzal-ud-Daula. 

The modern era of the development of the twin cities began soon after the last flood on the river Musi in AD 1908. The flood had shattered the lives of many people living in Hyderabad. Mr. M.Vishweshwarayya, the great engineer of Mysore, was specially appointed as adviser to the Nizam's Government to suggest measures for flood control and improvement of the city. Osman Sagar and Himayat Sagar were constructed as result of his suggestion in AD 1917. These two dams not only controlled the floods, but also supplied drinking water to the city. Another important step taken for the development of the city was the formation of the City Improvement Board in AD 1912, which paid greater attention to the construction of roads, markets, housing sites and shopping centers in the city. The Nizam VII, Osman Ali Khan, moved to Kingkothi, the northern suburb of the city in AD 1914, which helped in the development of its surroundings. Several public utility services were commissioned in AD 1922, which include electricity (AD 1923), rail connection to Bangalore (AD1928), and bus service (AD 1932). The bus routes radiated from the capital to all the district headquarters in AD 1936. The Madras-Karachi Air Service was linked with Hyderabad with Hakimpet as landing facility in AD 1935. Under the rule of Nizam VII, many building were constructed. They include Legislative Assembly, Hyderabad and Secunderabad railway stations, the High Court, City College, the Asafia Library, the Unani Hospital, and the Osmania University. The Nizam VII, The Osman Ali Khan, can be called as the maker of modern Hyderabad. The buildings constructed during his reign are impressive and represent a rich variety of architecture. Examples are the magnificent Osmania University, the sprawling Osmania General Hospital in the Mughal style, the lofty High Court in Indo-Saracenic style, the stately well-proportioned Legislative Assembly building in Saracenic-Rajasthani style. The Falaknuma, built by Nawab Viquar-ul-Umra, a Paigha Noble in AD.1892 has become a landmark like Charminar.

Moghuls

The Moghul emperor, Aurangazeb, invaded Golconda in AD 1687. The Golconda became part of the Deccan Subha and a Nazim was appointed as an agent of the Moghul emperor. The Nazims ruled for period of 35 years. The last one was Mubariz Khan.

The period between AD 1687 and A D 1724 saw several changes. Aurangazeb died in AD 1707. The administrative machinery of the Moghul imperial regime began to crumble and the central authority manned by successive feeble rulers gradually lost control over the provinces. The state of affairs in Deccan was worse, since it was situated far away from the capital. This enabled two foreign mercantile companies to consolidate themselves as political powers capable of subsequently playing decisive roles in shaping the destiny of the nation. They were the East India Company of England and the Compagnie de Inde Orientale of France. These trading companies had their headquarters at Madras and Pondicherry respectively and both had trade centers at Machilipatnam.

Qutub Shahis

The Qutub Shahi dynasty ruled for two hundred years from the early part of the 16 th century to the end of the 17 th century. Sultan Quli Qutub Shah, the founder of the dynasty, served the Bahmanis and he was appointed governor of Telangana in AD 1496. He declared independence after the death of his patron king, Mahmud Shah in AD 1518. During his 50 years rule, the Sultan Quli extended his kingdom up to Machilipatnam. His third son Jamsheed murdered him and succeeded him. Jamsheed reigned for seven years till AD 1550 but remained maligned.

His youngest brother, Ibrahim, who was thirteen at the time of his father's assassination, fled to Vijayanagar and took refuge there. He learned the art of administration. Ibrahim returned to Golconda and ascended the throne After Jamsheed's death in AD 1550.

Ibrahim Qutub Shah was the real architect of the Golconda kingdom. He ruled the kingdom for about 30 years from AD 1550 to AD 1580. He organised the central and provincial governments and brought them into close contact. He also introduced an efficient intelligence service. Ibrahim dug lakes and tanks and laid out towns and gardens. He also encouraged local language Telugu and patronized Telugu scholars and poets like, Telaganarya and Gangadhara.

Ibrahim's son, Muhammad Quli was a great writer and a builder. The next period of forty years led by Ibrahim's son and grandson was an era of peace and prosperity. The city of Hyderabad was laid in AD 1591 with magnificent buildings, straight roads and other civic amenities. He invited many Persians to settle down in Hyderabad and Machilipatnam. He was a scholar and a poet, composed a large number of poems in the Deccani language.

His nephew and son-in-law Sultan Muhammad in AD 1612 succeeded Muhammad Quli. Sultan Muhammad was highly religious and a model of virtue and piety. He followed his uncle in promoting learning and architecture. The great mosque known as Mecca Masjid in Hyderabad was designed and its foundation laid by him. Sultan Muhammad's premature death in AD 1626 was a sad prelude to the decline and fall of Golconda.

His minor son, Abdullah Qutub Shah, who was indolent, succeeded him. The fall of Ahmadnagar in AD 1633 to the Moghuls exposed Golconda. Abdullah Qutub Shah acknowledged the suzerainty of the Moghuls and signed a treaty in AD 1636.

He was reduced to vassalage and interfered in day-to-day administration and encouraged fissiparous tendencies. Abdullah Qutub Shah died in AD 1672 and was succeeded by his third son-in-law, Abul Hassan Qutub Shah, popularly known as Tana Shah. He had a broader vision and administrative experience of a high order. He handled the domestic and foreign affairs deftly and put forth all his efforts against the Moghul tide.

The Moghul Empire launched his campaign against both the Marathas and the Deccan Sultanates in AD 1682. His original plan was to attack on the Marathas, but later on, he suspended the plan and directed his forces against Bijapur and Golconda in AD 1685. Bijapur fell in after two months' siege, but Golconda held out for a long time. It came to an end owing to the treachery of an Afghan general, Abdullah Khan, who opened the gate in the dead of night and facilitated the capture of the fort.

The fall of Golconda in AD.1687 had far reaching consequences. So long the king Abul Hassan and his Minister, Madanna, kept their constant vigil on the English merchants.

Bahamanis

For the first time in Telangana history, it came under the yoke of an alien ruler, the Muslims, after the disastrous fall of Warangal in AD 1323. Alla-ud-din Hasan Gangu established an independent Muslim State, the Bahmani kingdom in south India by revolting against the Delhi Sultanate in AD 1347. Alla-ud-din Hasan Gangu waged wars to annex the two neighboring Hindu kingdoms, Warangal, under the Musunuri Nayakas, and Vijayanagar, which was under the Rayas. He occupied the area up to the river Tungabhadra in AD 1358. He then shifted his capital from Daulatabad to Gulbarga. The Bahmani rule was plagued with factions by the end of the 15th century and there came into existence the five Shahi kingdoms, the Nizamshahis of Ahmadnagar, the Adilshahis of Bijapur, the Imadshahis of Berar, the Qutbshahis of Golconda and the Baridshahis of Bidar. The rule of the Bahmani dynasty came to an end in A.D 1527. It was the Qutbshahi dynasty that played a significant role in the history of Telangana. Harihara II carried on a campaign to control over the territory against the Reddis and wrested Addanki and Srisailam areas from the Reddis. This led to clashes with the Velamas of Rachakonda in Telangana. The Rachakonda sought help from Bahmanis and this constrained Harihara II from proceeding further into Telangana. The Devaraya I (AD 1406-1422) emerged victorious and ascended the throne only to wage wars against the Bahmanis, the Velamas of Telangana and the Reddis of Kondavidu after the death of Harihara II.

Kakatiyas

Kakatiyas were emerged in the 12 th century and they were the first feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyana. They ruled over a small territory near Warangal. A ruler of this dynasty, Prola II, ruled from AD 1110 to 1158 extended his rule to the south and declared his independence.

His successor Rudra (AD 1158-1195) pushed the kingdom to the north to the Godavari delta. He built a fort at Warangal to serve as a second capital. He faced the invasions of the Yadavas of Devagiri. The next ruler Mahadeva extended the kingdom to the coastal area. Ganapati succeeded him in AD 1199. He was the greatest of the Kakatiyas and the first one after the Satavahanas to bring the entire Telugu area under one rule. He ended the rule of the Velanati Cholas in AD 1210. He forced the Telugu Cholas of Vikramasimhapura to accept his suzerainty. Ganapati Deva had no sons, so his daughter Rudramba succeeded him in AD 1262. Some generals rebelled, under her rule. She suppressed the internal rebellions and external invasions with the help of loyal subordinates. The Cholas and the Yadavas suffered set backs at her hands and they did not think of troubling her for the rest of her rule.

Prataparudra succeeded his grandmother Rudramamba in A.D.1295 and ruled till AD 1323. He extended the western border up to Raichur. He introduced many administrative reforms and he divided the kingdom into 75 Nayakships. In his time the territory had the first experience of a Muslim invasion. The Delhi Sultan Ala-ud-din Khilji sent an army to plunder the kingdom in AD 1303. The Prataparudra defeated them at Upparapalli in Karimnagar district. When an army under Malik Kafur invaded Warangal, Prataparudra yielded and agreed to pay a large tribute AD 1310.

When Ala-ud-din Khilji died in AD 1318, Prataparudra withheld the tribute. It provoked another invasion from the Muslims. Ghiaz-ud-din Tughlaq sent a large army under Ulugh Khan to conquer the Telugu country then called Tilling in AD 1321.

He laid siege to Warangal, but owing to internal distensions he called off the siege, and then he came back with a much bigger army in a short period. Prataparudra fought bravely. For lack of supplies, he surrendered to the enemy, who sent him to Delhi as a prisoner, and he died on the way. Thus ended the Kakatiya rule, opening the gates of the Telugu land to anarchy and confusion yielding place to an alien ruler.

The Kakatiya period was rightly called the brightest period of the Telugu history. The entire Telugu speaking area was under the kings who spoke Telugu and the kings encouraged Telugu. They established order throughout the strife torn land and they built forts. They played a dominant role in the defense of the realm.

Anumakonda and Gandikota among the giridurgas, Kandur and Narayanavanam among the vanadurgas, Divi and Kolanu among the jaladurgas, and Warangal and Dharanikota among the sthaladurgas were reckoned as the most famous strongholds in the Kakatiya period. Though Saivism continued to be the religion of the masses, intellectuals favored revival of Vedic rituals.

They sought to reconcile the Vaishnavites and the Saivites through the worship of Harihara. Arts and literature found patrons in the Kakatiyas and their feudatories. Tikkana Somayaji, who adorned the court of the Telugu Chola ruler Manumasiddhi II, wrote the last 15 cantos of the Mahabharata . Sanskrit received encouragement at the hands of the Kakatiyas Prataparudra was a writer and he encouraged other literature.

Kakatiya art preserved the balance between architecture and sculpture. The Kakatiya temples, dedicated mostly to Siva, reveal in their construction a happy blending of the styles of North India and South India, which influenced the political life of the Deccan.

The most important of these temples are Palampeta, Hanamkonda The temple at Palampeta, described as the brightest gem in the galaxy of Medieval Deccan temple architecture. It was constructed by Recherla Rudra, a general of Kakatiya Ganapati, in AD 1213. The figures in the temple are of a heterogeneous character comprising gods, goddesses, warriors, acrobats, musicians, and mithuna pairs in abnormal attitudes and dancing girls.

The Thousand-Pillar Temple at Hanamkonda, built by the Kakatiya king Rudra in AD 1162, is similar in style and workmanship to the Ramappa temple. This temple dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Surya, is star-shaped. The Nandi pavilion, in which a huge granite bull still stands at the beautiful entrances to the shrine. The pierced slabs used for screens and windows, and the elegant open work by which the bracket-shafts are attached to the pillars are the other most interesting features of this temple.

It was believed that the temple in the Warangal fort was built by Ganapati and it was constructed making use of large slabs. The floor of the shrine is beautifully polished and shines like a mirror. An interesting feature of this temple is the four gateways called Kirti Stambhas, which face the four cardinal points of the compass.

After the fall of Kakatiyas, uncertainty prevailed over the region. Several small kingdoms came into existence. Musunuri Nayakas occupied Warangal from Muslims and ruled between AD 1325-1368

Chalukyas

Pulakesin II, the renowned ruler of Chalukyas conquered Vengi (near Eluru) in AD 624 and made his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana (AD 624-641) as its ruler. His dynasty known as the Eastern Chalukyas ruled for nearly four centuries. Contemporaries to the Eastern Chalukyas were the Eastern Gangas in the northeast and the Pallavas in the south. A Chalukya family ruled Vemulavada (Karimnagar district). Their rule extended over the present day Karimnagar and Nizamabad districts. As subordinate rulers loyal to the Rashtrakutas, they ruled with semi-independent status for about two centuries (AD 755-968). The Cholas attained the status of a major power in south India under the leadership of Rajaraja I (AD 985-1016).

Two rebel princes of the Eastern Chalukya family sought refuge in Rajaraja I court. The Rajaraja I utilized the claim of one of these princes, Saktivarma, as a pretext for intervening in the affairs of Vengi. He was successful in crowning Saktivarma on the throne of Vengi. From that time, the Eastern Chalukyas played a role subservient to the Cholas. The Telugu country witnessed battles between the Cholas and the Chalukyas of Kalyani who supported a rival claimant to the throne of the Vengi each time. An Eastern Chalukya Prince, Rajendra, occupied the Chola throne in AD 1070. Nevertheless, Vijayaditya VII, a cousin of Rajaraja, continued to rule over Vengi till his death in AD 1076. Then the Eastern Chalukya dynasty came to an end.

Though the Eastern Chalukyas originally of Kannada stock, they patronized Telugu and gave importance to it. The great epic Mahabharata was translated partly by Eastern Chalukya king, Rajaraja court poet, Nannaya in the 11 th century. At the time of Chalukya conquest there were three religions: Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism. Buddhism was on the wane and the resurgent Hinduism transformed the Buddhist Aramas into pilgrim centers. Hinduism enjoyed the status of a national religion throughout the kingdom. Temples were built which played an important role in the religious life of the people. In the period of seven centuries (AD 624-AD 1323), Telangana history had seen significant sea-change and it brought in all spheres of the human activity; social, religious, linguistic and literary. Kakatiyas came to power during the later half of this period and extended their rule over the entire Telugu land with the exception of a small land in the northeast.

Sathavahanas

The Satavahanas rose to a political power, after the fall of the Mauryan Empire. There were twenty-nine rulers of this dynasty according to Matsya Purana. Sathavahanas ruled over the Telangana for about 400 years from the 2nd century BC. The Sathavahanas were also called Salivahanas and Satakarnis. The founder of the Sathavahana dynasty, Simukha unified the various Andhra principalities into one kingdom and became its ruler from 271 BC to 248 BC. Dharanikota near Amaravati in Guntur district was the first capital of Simukha, but later he shifted his capital to Pratishtana (Paithan in Aurangabad district).

The Satavahanas thus assumed significance as imperial rulers in succession to the Nandas, Mauryas, Sungas and Kanvas. The kings, who succeeded him, appear to have been driven, by the Sakas, out of Maharastra back to their homeland in Andhra. Gautamiputra Satakarni, the 23rd ruler of this dynasty ascended the throne in AD 62. It was time, their kingdom made a sharp recovery of the lost territories from the western Kshatrapas. Records describe him as the restorer of the glory of the Satavahanas. His kingdom included the territories of Asika, Assaka, Mulaka, Anupa, Kukura, Aparanta, Vidarbha, Akara, Saurashtra and Avanti, and the mountainous regions of Vindhya, Pariyatra, Achavata, Kanhagiri, Siritana, Sahya, Malaya, Mahendra, Sata and Chakora, and extended as far as seas on either side.

The Gautamiputra's kingdom covered not only the peninsular India, but also the southern parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. He died in AD 86, and his successors witnessed the dismemberment of their empire. Pulumavi II succeeded Gautamiputra and ruled for about 28 years. Yajnasri Satakarni succeeded and he came into conflict with the Saka Satrap, Rudradamana, and suffered defeat, and consequently, lost all his western possessions. He continued to rule till AD 157 over a truncated dominion. His ship-marked coins suggest extensive maritime trade during his days. His passed away, marked the end of rule of the Satavahanas by 2 nd century AD.

It appeared that Dharmapuri in Karimnagar district was used as capital. The Deccan, during this period was an emporium of inland and maritime trade. The region between the rivers of Godavari and Krishna was full of ports and throbbing with activity. There was plentiful of currency to facilitate trade and the Telugus entered upon a period of great industrial, commercial and maritime activity.

Buddhism flourished throughout the period and the rulers were also devoted to Vedic ritualism. They constructed several Buddhist Stupas, Viharas and Chaityas. Satavahanas were able rulers and loved literacy and architecture. The 17th ruler of this dynasty, Hala was a great poet and his " Gathasaptasati" in Prakrit was well received by all. Gunadhya, the minister of Hala was the author of " Brihatkadha ".

The decline and fall of the Satavahana Empire left the Andhra country in a political chaos. Local rulers as well as invaders tried to carve out small kingdoms for themselves and to establish many dynasties. During the period from AD 180 to AD 624 Ikshvakus, Vishnukundins, Vakatakas, Pallavas, Anandagotras, Kalingas and others ruled over the Andhra area with their small kingdoms. Such instability continued to prevail until the rise of the Eastern Chalukyas.

History of Telangana

Telangana has been the homeland for Sathavahanas and Kakatiyas . Kotilingala in Karimnagar was the first capital of the Sathavahanas before Dharanikota . Excavations at Kotilingala revealed coinage of Simukha, a Satavahana emperor.

The region experienced its golden age during the reign of the Kakatiyas, a Telugu dynasty that ruled most parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083 CE to 1323. Ganapatideva was known as the greatest of the Kakatiyas and the first after the Satavahanas to bring the entire Telugu area under one rule. He put an end to the rule of the Cholas in the year 1210 who accepted his suzerainty. He established order in his vast dominion that stretched from the Godavari delta and Anakapalle in the east to Raichur (in modern day Karnataka ) in the west and from Karimnagar & Bastar (in modern day Chattisgarh ) in the north to Srisailam & Tripurantakam, near Ongole in the south. It was also during his reign that the Golkonda fort was first constructed by the Kakatiyas.

Telangana, then came under Muslim rule in 14th century for the first time by Delhi Sultanate followed by Bahmanis, Qutb Shahis and Moghals. As the Mughal Empire began to disintegrate in the early 18th century, the Muslim Asafjahi dynasty established a separate state known as Hyderabad. Later, Hyderabad entered into a treaty of subsidiary alliance with the British Empire , and was the largest and most populous princely state in India. Telangana was never under direct British rule, unlike Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema regions of Andhra Pradesh, which were part of British India 's Madras Presidency.

Post-independence history (1948-1952)

When India became independent from the British Empire, the Nizam of Hyderabad wanted to retain his independence, but the Government of India amalgamated his state by force on September 17, 1948; after executing Operation Polo by the Indian Army. When India became independent, the Telugu -speaking people were distributed in about 22 districts ; 9 of them in the Telangana region of Nizam's Dominions ( Hyderabad State ), 12 in the Madras Presidency ( Andhra region ) and one in French-controlled Yanam. A Communist led peasant revolt started in 1946, lasted until 1951.

The central government appointed a civil servant, Keralite, Vellodi Narayana Menon K as Chief Minister of Hyderabad state on 26 January 1950. He administered the state with the help of bureaucrats from Madras state and Bombay state . In 1952, Telangana had tasted democracy for the first time when it participated in general elections and elected Dr. Burgula Ramakrishna Rao as the Chief minister of Hyderabad State . The Telugu speaking people in Madras state , enjoyed some form of democracy since 1920. During this time there was violent Mulki agitation by some Telanganites to send back bureaucrats from Madras state and to implement Mulki rules strictly.

1948-1952 Influx of Andhra People

It has to be noted that with no such precedence in Independent Indian political history, for four years, civil and military administrators ruled Hyderabad State. This period saw a huge influx of Andhra people into this region taking up all the new positions that the new India was throwing open to its people. With the pretext that people of Telangana were not educated in English or Telugu, the positions were filled up people from Andhra region. Once these people occupied these vital positions, they in turn invited many of their kith and kin to fill in many other positions. The history of Telangana Movement owes its origin to a certain extent to this period. During this time, it became evident to the people of Telangana that future holds complete marginalization of its people.

We don't make a record of migrations within the state, but if there is such a statistic, it will clearly reveal that millions of Andhra people migrate to Telangana occupying many positions in the government offices, banks, schools, colleges, universities, etc. Also, there was a great influx of businessmen from Andhra who had sold off their lands and assets in Andhra and setup business in Telangana region. We will also notice almost negligible migration happened from Telangana to Andhra regions during this period.  

Mulki Rules Flouted

The Nizam set up schools, colleges, madrasas and a University that imparted education in Urdu. Nizam, who had great admiration for British, started Hyderabad Civil Service (HCS) similar to Indian Civil Service (ICS). Though Nizam had three different regions in his kingdom - Telugu, Kannada and Marathi regions - he managed the conflicts that could arise between these regions by implementing 'Mulki Rules'. Mulki Rules provide 80% reservation for local people in all recruitments for C and D posts at district level and 60% reservation for local people in Class A and B posts at divisional level. This system ensured that people of the each region got access to opportunities. The Mulki Rules came into existence in 1928.

During the influx after Independence, most of these rules were flouted using fake certificates that gave people of Andhra region a local status. When the people of Telangana realized how Andhra people were able to take up the jobs using these fake certificates, they started a protest called 'Gair Mulki Go Back!' [Non-Mulki Go Back]

1952 Hyderabad State Elections

And contrary to the contemporary belief that Telangana was never a state before, Burgula Ramakrishna Rao was elected the Chief Minister of Hyderabad State in 1952. Telangana was part of a state called Hyderabad state in India, before it became a part of Andhra Pradesh against its will.

Creation of Andhra State

While Hyderabad State came into existence on its own which included Telangana only in 1948, Telugu-speaking Andhra region was a part of Madras Presidency. This region became independent on August 15, 1947 along with rest of India as Madras Presidency.

Fearing that most of the newly created jobs and opportunities would be taken up by Tamils since they were more educated and had access to opportunities, Andhra people started a protest. Potti Sriramulu, the leader of this agitation started a 'hunger strike till death' on 19 th October 1952. Even though New Delhi surmised that these people could be given a new state with a new capital to take care of academic and government jobs and other economic opportunities, Potti Sriramulu fought for Madras city (now called Chennai) as their capital city. The recommendations given to New Delhi suggested that Madras will belong to Tamils and not to Andhra People. Potti Sriramulu died on 15 th December 1952 after 63 days of fasting.

His actions resulted in formation of First State Reorganization Committee (SRC) which divided the nation along linguistic lines, though Nehru was quite averse to such organization based on language.

New Delhi approved for creation of a new state called Andhra on 1 st October 1953 for the people of Andhra region carved out of erstwhile Madras Presidency.

One of the misconceptions that are flouted nowadays is that Potti Sriramulu fought for a greater and unified Vishalandhra comprising all Telugu people under one state. There is no truth to this. He had in fact fought for extremely local demands for his own people of Andhra region, and not Telangana people.

Prevailing mood before Creation of Andhra Pradesh

Hyderabad State was created in 1948, Andhra was created in 1953. Andhra people won themselves a state but not Madras. Their capital city was an unknown city called Kurnool. They were still scouting for a much needed capital city that can rival Madras. The death of Potti Sriramulu put agitation of Andhra People on the national scene. With the creation of Andhra, legitimacy for creating states on linguistic lines was gaining ground.

The same bystanders from Andhra region, who stood by while Telangana went through Razakar Movement and who later on took up many positions in the Hyderabad state now started to vie for Hyderabad city.

It should be known that Hyderabad was a very famous city in the world already. It was considered the second most important city in the Muslim World where one of the world's richest men resided. It was known for architecture marvels and international businesses. Hyderabad state was the biggest princely state in India who had direct access to British Crown.

People of Andhra now caught a new slogan to create a new state for all Telugu people, including people of Telangana. The reality had set in New Delhi that creation of states along linguistic lines could not be avoided. During First SRC headed by Fazal Ali, states like Kerala, Madras State (Tamil Nadu), Mysore state (later named to Karnataka), were all created based on linguistic lines. Andhra people vied for Hyderabad and hence whole of Telangana, and campaigned under the slogan that the binding factor was the common language Telugu. Though Telangana was unimpressed by such placatory moves because of the experiences of 1948-52, and though Telangana was least interested in joining Andhra, and though Telangana bitterly opposed it when it came to happen, Andhra prevailed and they were successful in annexing Telangana to form Andhra Pradesh thereby winning the crown jewel Hyderabad.

Another misconception that is flouted now is that First SRC has definitely agreed for creation of Andhra Pradesh from Telangana and Andhra State. That is not the case. In fact, the First SRC clearly makes a case of Telangana. Here are the excerpts from the text:

The Case for Telangana

• The considerations which have been argued in favour of a separate Telangana State are, however, not such as may be lightly brushed aside.
• Some Telangana leaders seem to fear that the result of unification will be to exchange some settled sources of revenue, out of which development schemes may be financed, for financial uncertainty similar to that which Andhra is now faced. Telangana claims to be progressive and from an administrative point of view, unification it is contended is not likely to confer any benefits on this area.
• When plans for future development are taken into account, Telangana fears that the claims of this area may not receive adequate consideration in Vishalandhra. .does not wish to lose its present independent rights in relation to the utilization of the waters of Krishna and Godavari.
• One of the principal causes of opposition of Vishalandhra also seems to be the apprehension felt by the educationally backward people of Telangana that they may be swamped and exploited by the more advanced people of the coastal areas. In the Telangana districts outside the city of Hyderabad, education is woefully backward. While Telangana, itself may be converted into a colony by the enterprising coastal Andhra.
• 'The Telangana' it has further been argued, can be stable and viable, unit considered by itself.